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标题 风险偏好、外部信息失效与农药暴露行为
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    摘要 农民长期暴露在农药环境中,他们或者在使用农药时直接接触农药,或者在没有过安全期就直接进入农地而接触到农药残留,由此也引发了健康风险问题。对此,一部分学者认为农民的农药暴露可能是受农民风险偏好所驱动的行为;另一部分学者认为农民关于自身农药暴露的信息是非常有限的,这也正是农民长期暴露于农药环境中的根本原因。而本文则是从农户行为角度着手,运用广东省274个菜农的实地调研数据,通过个人保护装备使用情况来判断农民的农药暴露程度,在此基础上构建有序回归模型,计量分析了风险偏好、外部信息失效和个人特征对农药暴露行为的影响作用,并对农民农药信息失效的原因进行了研究。研究发现:目前广东农民整体存有较高程度的农药暴露现象;在控制农民的年龄、受教育程度和性别后,影响农民农药暴露行为的显著因素是“外部信息失效”,而不是“风险偏好”,即相较于农药信息来自自身经验的农民,最有用的农药信息是来自外部信息的农民在施用农药时穿戴全套保护装备的概率更低;农药零售商为了追求利益最大化而向农民提供不完全或者不对称的农药信息,这也正是现阶段农民外部农药信息失效以及高程度农药暴露行为的主要原因。结论表明,为推进农药信息普及工作,降低农民的农药暴露程度,应做到:第一,加强对农药零售商的培训、管理和监督,优化市场环境,引导农药零售商向农民提供完全、对称、准确的农药信息;第二,进一步强化农技站、植保站和农业学校等相关部门的农药信息服务功能。

    关键词 农药暴露;风险偏好;农药信息;信息渠道

    中图分类号 F323.6 文献标识码 A 文章编号 1002-2104(2014)09-0135-06

    农药是农业中用于消灭病虫害的主要手段,其在农业领域的引入与使用,大大提高了农作物产量和生产率,但不断增加的农药使用也导致了有毒化学物质的释放,污染了环境[1-2]。农药已经被认为是环境中最具毒性的传播物之一,农药对许多非目标对象造成严重的负面影响,并引发农民的农药暴露问题[3]。所谓农药暴露,就是农业工人或农民职业性的暴露到农药环境中,可能是使用农药时直接接触农药,或在没有过安全期时进入农地而接触到残留在作物中的农药[4]。大部分文献都认为,农场工人和农民的健康风险问题,主要来自于农药暴露与农药使用[5-6]。农药暴露对健康的影响作用可能是立即的,包括皮疹、头痛、恶心和呕吐、定向障碍、休克、昏迷、呼吸衰竭,甚至死亡;农药暴露对健康的影响也可能是长期的,如癌症、神经和生殖问题[7-8]。另外,还有许多不太常见的疾病都被怀疑是由农药暴露引起的,包括帕金森病和出生缺陷等[3]。

    对此,有学者提出农民在施用农药过程中可通过正确使用个人防护装备(PPE)来降低农药暴露程度,然而发展中国家(包括中国)的农民却较少使用保护装备,用手直接施用农药是常见的现象[9-10]。那么,究竟是什么原因导致了农民的农药暴露行为?大量的研究表明,农民的风险偏好在他们的农业生产行为中发挥着巨大的作用[11]。有学者提出农民的风险厌恶程度与采纳抗虫棉的决策密切相关[12];也有学者认为农民的风险偏好显著影响他们的信贷决策行为[13-14];另外还有学者提出了农药施用行为与农民风险偏好有关[15]。可见,农民的风险偏好与态度对于其追求利益最大化的行为决策具有重要的影响作用[12,16-17],发展中国家农民的农药暴露可能是受农民风险偏好所驱动的行为。

    另外,农民一般是自我雇佣的,他们关于自身农药暴露的信息非常有限[18],而信息是农民决策过程中减小不确定性的主要因素[19]。因而,农民的信息有效性与信息渠道,也是影响农民应对风险、做出决策的主要因素。有学者提出农民过量施用农药可能与从出售农药的农业技术推广部门得到的信息有关[15];也有学者认为干旱信息的有效性显著影响农民关于保险购买计划的决策[19]。由此可见,农民的决策行为,除了受到自身风险偏好的影响,还可能受到外部信息的影响。

    那么,中国农民的农药暴露行为究竟如何?农民的农药暴露行为到底是因为自身的风险偏好所形成的决策,还是由于外部信息失效所导致的,抑或是两者共同的结果?

    2.2.1 农民风险偏好农民的风险偏好或者说风险态度是农民的主观意愿,难以直接衡量,对此本研究将用“农民是否购买保险”作为代理变量。之所以使用该指标作为代理变量,原因有二:一是农民是否购买保险能够客观衡量;二是购买保险是农民厌恶风险的表现,即相较于没有购买保险的农民,购买保险的农民更加厌恶风险。尽管“农民是否购买保险”并不是农民风险偏好的直接衡量,但使用该指标能较为明确的将农民划分为风险厌恶程度较高(购买保险)和较低(不购买保险)的两个群体,而通过研究这两个群体农药暴露行为的差异性,则可间接判断出风险偏好是否显著影响农药暴露行为。

    2.2.2 农药信息有效性如果由农民自己判断农药信息的有效性,则可能出现判断错误或者过度判断等主观臆断现象,对此本研究将用“最有用的农药信息是否来自自身经验以外的其他信息”作为代理变量。如果来自外界的信息对农药暴露程度有正向影响作用,则说明外界农药信息失效,降低了农民对农药暴露的正确认识,反之则可认为外界农药信息有助于减弱农药暴露行为。

    2.2.3 控制变量

    由男女农民的农药暴露程度差异可知,农民的个性特征可能也会对农药暴露行为产生一定的影响作用,因而本研究将性别、年龄和受教育程度等农民个性特征因素列为控制变量。

    2.3.1 解释变量回归结果诠释

    (1)变量“外部信息”通过5%的显著性检验,回归系数为-0.868,由关系式OR=eβ可知,该因素的比例优势系数小于1。表明相较于农药信息来自自身经验的农民,最有用的农药信息是来自外部信息的农民在施用农药时穿戴全套保护装备的概率更低。结合本研究代理变量的内涵,该回归结果的含义是:依赖外部信息的农民具有高程度的农药暴露现象的概率高于依赖自我经验的农民。由此可以判断,农民在农药方面的外部信息失效,从而导致了部分农民的高程度农药暴露行为。

    (2)变量“是否购买保险”没有通过显著性检验,表明购买保险与没有购买保险的农民,在施用农药时个人保护装备的使用情况并不存在显著的差异。结合本研究代理变量的内涵,该结果的含义是:风险厌恶程度的高低并不是影响农民农药暴露行为的显著因素。其原因可能是:对于农民而言,他们并不将农药暴露视为一种风险行为,因而他们选择该行为时并不受自身风险偏好的影响。这也从侧面验证了外部信息失效是农药暴露行为的主要原因,由于外部信息失效,导致农民低估农药暴露的危害作用,从而将其视为一种非风险或者低风险行为,最终也导致农民的风险偏好不对农药暴露行为产生显著影响作用。

    2.3.2 控制变量回归结果诠释

    (1)“年龄”通过1%的显著性检验,回归系数为-0.064,由关系式OR=eβ可知,该因素的比例优势系数小于1。表明年龄越大的农民,越可能在施用农药时没有穿戴任何保护装备。

    (2)“受教育程度”中,仅有“受教育程度为小学”的样本通过10%的显著性检验,表明与受教育程度为高中或中专的农民相比,受教育程度为小学的农民施用农药时穿戴全套装备的概率增大。

    (3)“性别”没有通过显著性检验,表明性别并非影响农民农药暴露行为的显著因素。

    综上所述,在控制了农民的年龄、受教育程度和性别后,农药暴露行为是由外部信息失效所引起的,而并非农民自身的风险偏好所导致的。

    3 外部信息失效原因分析

    由前文分析可知,农民严重的农药暴露现象,并非农民风险偏好所引起,而是外部信息失效所导致。那么,农民的外部信息主要来自于哪些渠道,这些信息失效的原因又是什么?

    3.1 信息渠道

    如表5所示,对于农民而言,主要的农药信息渠道有四种,由高至低分别为:“农药零售店”、“农民自己的经验”、“其他农民或邻居的推荐”、“农技站、植保站或农业学校”。其中,选择“农药零售店”为主要信息渠道的农民有157人,占比高达92.9%;选择“自己的经验”为主要信息渠道的农民有137人,占比为81.07%;选择“其他农民或邻居的推荐”为主要信息渠道的农民有96人,占比为56.80%;选择“农技站、植保站或农业学校”为主要信息渠道的农民有28人,占比为16.57%。而将另外十一种渠道视为主要农药信息来源的农民都不足10%。

    3.2 信息失效原因

    如前文所述,农民外部农药信息存在失效的现象,进而导致了农民的农药暴露行为。而由农民信息渠道分析可知,“农药零售店”是农民最主要和最有用的信息渠道,超过90%的农民将“农药零售店”视为主要的农药信息渠道,接近50%的农民将“农药零售店”选为最有用的信息渠道。由此可见,“农药零售店”在销售农药过程中也为农民提供了一定的农药信息,但他们提供的并非完全或者对称的有效信息。本研究认为,之所以农药零售店会提供不完全或者不对称的信息,主要原因在于:第一,农药零售店是追求利益最大化的经济主体,他们在销售农药过程中会过分强调农药的优点及正面作用(如杀虫效果、低毒性等),并故意弱化农药的负面影响(如对环境的污染、对农民健康的危害等),从而提高农民对农药的认可程度,增加农药销量;第二,目前中国的农药零售市场环境较差、监管力度不足,从而导致零售商对农药缺乏全面的认知,进而影响他们提供信息的准确性和有效性。

    4 结论与政策含义

    基于以上分析,本研究得到如下结论。①广东农民整体存在严重的农药暴露现象。②实证分析发现,控制了农民的年龄、受教育程度和性别后,影响农民农药暴露行为的显著因素是“外部信息”,而不是“是否购买保险”。③“农药零售店”是农民最主要和最有用的信息渠道,农药零售店为了提高农民对农药的认可、增加农药销量,向农民提供不完全或者不对称的农药信息,由此也造成现阶段农民外部农药信息失效以及高程度的农药暴露现象。

    基于以上结论,本研究认为可以通过如下两个方面的工作来推进农药信息普及和降低农民的农药暴露行为。第一,加强对农药零售店(商)的培训、管理和监督,优化市场环境,引导农药零售店(商)向农民提供完全、对称、准确的农药信息。由前文分析可知,农民从农药零售店获得不完全或不对称的信息是现阶段农民高程度农药暴露行为的主要原因。因而,相关部门一方面应该加强对农药零售店(商)的培训,提高他们对农药的认识程度;另一方面则应该优化市场环境,加强对农药零售店(商)的管理与监督,确保农民在购买农药过程中能够获得准确、对称、完全的农药信息。第二,进一步强化农技站、植保站和农业学校等相关部门的农药信息服务功能。由前文分析可知,农民的农药信息渠道主要有“农药零售店”、“农民自己的经验”、“其他农民或邻居的推荐”和“农技站、植保站或农业学校”,其中属于外部正式信息渠道的“农技站、植保站或农业学校”仅得到16.57%农民的认可。这说明能够客观提供有效以及对称的农药信息的农技站、植保站和农业学校等部门的信息服务工作并未在农村全面开展。因而必须进一步强化农技站、植保站和农业学校等相关部门的农药信息服务功能,进而保证农民获得有效的农药信息,降低农药暴露行为。

    (编辑:田 红)

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    Abstract Farmers often expose to the environment with pesticides, sometimes they directly contact with the pesticide when using it, sometimes they directly get into farmland and exposure to pesticides when there is no safety period. As a result, they get some problems of health hazard. Some scholars think that farmers behavior of pesticide exposure is likely to be driven by farmers risk preference. While other scholars think that the reason why farmers exposure to pesticide is their limited information about pesticide exposure. However, this paper is from the perspective of peasant household behavior, using the field survey data of 274 farmers in Guangdong Province to determine the level of farmers pesticide exposure by how they used personal protective equipment. Based on this, it builds orderly regression model, carries out econometric analysis on how risk preference, external information failure and personal characteristics affect the behavior of pesticide exposure. And then it studies the reasons of farmers information failure. This paper finds that farmers have high degree of pesticide exposure at present in Guangdong. The significant factor which affects farmers behavior of pesticide exposure is ‘external information failure, but not ‘risk appetite when controlling farmers age, level of education and gender. This means that compared with ones whose pesticide information is from their own experience, the farmers whose most useful pesticide information is from external information would less likely wear full set of protection equipment. Pesticide retailers will provide farmers with incomplete or asymmetry pesticide information for getting maximum interest, which is the main reason of farmers external pesticide information failure and high level of pesticide exposure. Results indicate that there are two aspects of work we should do to promote the pesticide information popularization and reduce farmers pesticide exposure. Firstly, we should strengthen the training, management and supervision of pesticide retailers, optimize the environment of market, and guide the pesticide retailers to provide farmers with completely, symmetry and accurate information of pesticides. Secondly, we also should strengthen the pesticide information service function from agricultural technology station, plant protection station, agricultural schools and other departments.

    Key words pesticide exposure; risk preference; pesticide information; sources of information

    [16]Humphrey S J, Verschoor A. Decisionmaking Under Risk Among Small Farmers in East Uganda[J]. Journal of African Economies, 2004, 13(1): 44-101.

    [17]Bontems P, Thomas A. Regulating Nitrogen Pollution with Risk Averse Farmers Under Hidden Information and Moral Hazard[J]. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 2006, 88(1): 57-72.

    [18]Hoppin J A, Yucel F, Dosemeci M, et al. Accuracy of Selfreported Pesticide Use Duration Information from Licensed Pesticide Applicators in the Agricultural Health Study[J]. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 2002, 12(5): 313-318.

    [19]Quiroga S, Garrote L, FernandezHaddad Z, et al. Valuing Drought Information for Irrigation Farmers: Potential Development of a Hydrological Risk Insurance in Spain[J]. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 2011, 9(4): 1059-1075.

    Abstract Farmers often expose to the environment with pesticides, sometimes they directly contact with the pesticide when using it, sometimes they directly get into farmland and exposure to pesticides when there is no safety period. As a result, they get some problems of health hazard. Some scholars think that farmers behavior of pesticide exposure is likely to be driven by farmers risk preference. While other scholars think that the reason why farmers exposure to pesticide is their limited information about pesticide exposure. However, this paper is from the perspective of peasant household behavior, using the field survey data of 274 farmers in Guangdong Province to determine the level of farmers pesticide exposure by how they used personal protective equipment. Based on this, it builds orderly regression model, carries out econometric analysis on how risk preference, external information failure and personal characteristics affect the behavior of pesticide exposure. And then it studies the reasons of farmers information failure. This paper finds that farmers have high degree of pesticide exposure at present in Guangdong. The significant factor which affects farmers behavior of pesticide exposure is ‘external information failure, but not ‘risk appetite when controlling farmers age, level of education and gender. This means that compared with ones whose pesticide information is from their own experience, the farmers whose most useful pesticide information is from external information would less likely wear full set of protection equipment. Pesticide retailers will provide farmers with incomplete or asymmetry pesticide information for getting maximum interest, which is the main reason of farmers external pesticide information failure and high level of pesticide exposure. Results indicate that there are two aspects of work we should do to promote the pesticide information popularization and reduce farmers pesticide exposure. Firstly, we should strengthen the training, management and supervision of pesticide retailers, optimize the environment of market, and guide the pesticide retailers to provide farmers with completely, symmetry and accurate information of pesticides. Secondly, we also should strengthen the pesticide information service function from agricultural technology station, plant protection station, agricultural schools and other departments.

    Key words pesticide exposure; risk preference; pesticide information; sources of information

    [16]Humphrey S J, Verschoor A. Decisionmaking Under Risk Among Small Farmers in East Uganda[J]. Journal of African Economies, 2004, 13(1): 44-101.

    [17]Bontems P, Thomas A. Regulating Nitrogen Pollution with Risk Averse Farmers Under Hidden Information and Moral Hazard[J]. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 2006, 88(1): 57-72.

    [18]Hoppin J A, Yucel F, Dosemeci M, et al. Accuracy of Selfreported Pesticide Use Duration Information from Licensed Pesticide Applicators in the Agricultural Health Study[J]. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 2002, 12(5): 313-318.

    [19]Quiroga S, Garrote L, FernandezHaddad Z, et al. Valuing Drought Information for Irrigation Farmers: Potential Development of a Hydrological Risk Insurance in Spain[J]. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 2011, 9(4): 1059-1075.

    Abstract Farmers often expose to the environment with pesticides, sometimes they directly contact with the pesticide when using it, sometimes they directly get into farmland and exposure to pesticides when there is no safety period. As a result, they get some problems of health hazard. Some scholars think that farmers behavior of pesticide exposure is likely to be driven by farmers risk preference. While other scholars think that the reason why farmers exposure to pesticide is their limited information about pesticide exposure. However, this paper is from the perspective of peasant household behavior, using the field survey data of 274 farmers in Guangdong Province to determine the level of farmers pesticide exposure by how they used personal protective equipment. Based on this, it builds orderly regression model, carries out econometric analysis on how risk preference, external information failure and personal characteristics affect the behavior of pesticide exposure. And then it studies the reasons of farmers information failure. This paper finds that farmers have high degree of pesticide exposure at present in Guangdong. The significant factor which affects farmers behavior of pesticide exposure is ‘external information failure, but not ‘risk appetite when controlling farmers age, level of education and gender. This means that compared with ones whose pesticide information is from their own experience, the farmers whose most useful pesticide information is from external information would less likely wear full set of protection equipment. Pesticide retailers will provide farmers with incomplete or asymmetry pesticide information for getting maximum interest, which is the main reason of farmers external pesticide information failure and high level of pesticide exposure. Results indicate that there are two aspects of work we should do to promote the pesticide information popularization and reduce farmers pesticide exposure. Firstly, we should strengthen the training, management and supervision of pesticide retailers, optimize the environment of market, and guide the pesticide retailers to provide farmers with completely, symmetry and accurate information of pesticides. Secondly, we also should strengthen the pesticide information service function from agricultural technology station, plant protection station, agricultural schools and other departments.

    Key words pesticide exposure; risk preference; pesticide information; sources of information

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