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标题 国际跨区碳市场及其能源经济影响评估
范文

    齐天宇 杨远哲 张希良

    摘要建立全球性跨区域碳市场被认为是全球气候治理的有效方式而一直备受关注。即将在2015年建成的欧盟-澳大利亚链接碳市场将成为国际跨区域碳市场的重要尝试。为分析建立多国参与的国际跨区碳市场的全球减排效果及其对各参与国的能源经济影响,本文采用表达能源经济系统相互关系的全球动态可计算一般均衡模型做出定量研究。模型将全球经济体分为20个经济部门和19个区域,并刻画有17种能源生产技术。同时为模拟全球碳市场政策,模型将碳排放权作为与化石能源消费相绑定的必要投入考虑到经济部门的各个生产与消费环节当中。在外生设置碳排放配额的同时,模型允许碳排放权像商品一样在不同区域与部门之间进行交易。考虑到全球碳市场的进展速度,本文选取2020年为研究时点,分别设计了四种情景(参考情景、独立碳市场情景、欧盟-澳大利亚链接情景以及中国-欧盟-澳大利亚链接情景)来探讨欧盟、中国、澳大利亚三国参与下的全球碳市场及其影响。研究表明,在各国2020年减排目标约束下各国碳市场的排放权价格有较大差别,澳大利亚碳价最高(32美元/t CO2),欧盟价格稍低(17.5美元/t CO2),而中国碳价最低(10美元/t CO2)。同时尽管中国的相对减排量(3%)低于欧盟(9%)与澳大利亚(18%),中国的绝对减排量也远远大于欧盟与澳大利亚两个国家。由于中国相对减排成本较低,中国加入欧盟-澳大利亚链接碳市场将促使国际碳价从22美元/t降至12美元/t,欧盟和澳大利亚分别向中国转移71%和81%的本国减排任务,同时分别获得0.03%和0.06%的福利增加。由于排放约束影响,中国工业部门的能效提升1.4%,煤炭发电量下降3.3%,而清洁能源发电量则上升3.5%。

    关键词排放交易体系;全球排放市场;可计算一般均衡模型

    中图分类号F224文献标识码A文章编号1002-2104(2014)03-0019-06doi:103969/jissn1002-2104201403004

    全球气候变化给人类生存和社会可持续发展带来了严峻挑战,世界各国意识到在实现经济发展的同时,需要降低经济增长所带来的碳排放。碳排放交易体系(Emission Trading Schemes, ETS)作为基于市场机制下的政策工具一直被认为是成本有效的减排手段,正在被越来越多的国家所采用。目前已开展排放权交易体系的国家和区域包括欧盟、美国加州、澳大利亚、新西兰、哈萨克斯坦、西部气候倡议(Western Climate Initiative,包括美国、加拿大、墨西哥部分州/省)以及中国的深圳等地,另有中国的部分省市以及韩国已经明确公布即将开展碳市场的计划及实施方案。据世界银行的统计,2011年全球碳市场总交易量达103亿t CO2e[1]。

    伴随碳排放权交易体系在全球各国的日渐推广,建立全球跨区域的国际性碳市场,以实现在更大范围内匹配减排资源、降低减排成本的方案正在被人们广泛讨论[2-3],但实际进展十分缓慢。这主要一方面是由于当前国际社会尚未形成统一而明确的减排目标,各国减排权责不明,同时也缺乏具有实际约束力的“自顶向下”的协调机构及机制来推进全球共同减排行动的开展;另一方面由于各国碳市场机制与实施细则存在较大差异,实现各区域自发的“自底向上”式的碳市场整合并形成一致性的交易平台存在诸多机制障碍,具有巨大挑战。此外,全球主要排放国家及区域只有欧盟已经实施了碳市场政策,尽管中国与美国已开始为建立本国碳市场做出准备,但是实际建立时间尚有很大不确定性。同时,全球还有诸如印度、俄罗斯等主要排放国尚没有建立碳市场的行动计划。因此,从目前来看,短期内建立全球框架下包含世界主要区域的全球碳市场具有很大的困难。

    尽管困难重重,国际社会已经开始从区域层面与产业层面为建立全球碳市场做出努力。即将开展的欧盟与澳大利亚两个跨区域碳市场链接就是一次重要的尝试。澳大利亚政府已明确表示计划在2015年左右建立本国碳市场并与欧盟碳市场实现交易对接[4]。如果该链接市场得以建立,将使欧盟与澳大利亚成为全球第一个建立在两个独立区域基础上的国际性碳市场。除了与欧盟合作以外,澳大利亚也在寻求与包括中国在内的其他国家合作建立跨区域碳市场。对此中国也表现出较大兴趣[5],并已经在多个场合表示愿意在本国碳市场完善以后加入全球碳市场的意向[6]。当前中国已经着手在国内建立区域碳市场试点,为全国碳市场的建立做好准备。中国第一个地方性碳市场试点已经开始在深圳运行[7],同时关于中国参与全球碳市场影响的相关研究也在逐步开展[8-9]。

    本研究基于欧盟与澳大利亚碳市场,考虑中国未来加入全球碳市场后对全球碳市场交易规模及全球碳价的影响,以及国际碳排放权交易体系下对各国能源与经济系统的影响。

    齐天宇等:国际跨区碳市场及其能源经济影响评估中国人口·资源与环境2014年第3期1模型工具

    为模拟市场机制下的碳排放权交易机制与定价规则,本研究采用全球能源经济模型(China in Global Energy Model, CGEM)作为分析工具对全球碳市场及其影响作出评估。该模型为全球多区域动态可计算一般均衡模型,模型基于经济学一般均衡理论,对社会经济生产与消费,产品市场的供给与需求等相互关系具有清晰表述。模型分为20个经济部门,包括5种能源生产部门(煤炭、原油、天然气、成品油及电力), 10种工业部门(化工、钢铁、有色、非金属、金属制品、装备制造业、食品加工业、采矿业、建筑业、其他工业),3种农业部门(农业、林业及畜牧业)以及2种服务业部门(交通服务业及其他服务业)。各部门生产活动采用嵌套结构的常替代弹性生产函数

    本研究在模型中将碳排放空间作为一种自然要素考虑到经济部门的各个生产与消费环节当中。在经济生产与消费的过程中,只要有化石能源的消费并产生CO2排放的经济活动,都必须绑定投入相应的CO2排放权,CO2排放权作为自然要素其供给(亦即排放限额)由外生给定,初始免费在各经济部门之间分配,并可自由贸易。在实际生产与消费过程中,各经济部门消费自身分配的排放空间,自身排放空间不足的要么通过减少自身的化石能源消费,要么通过向其他主体购买CO2排放权获得。化石能源消费的CO2排放数量采用IPCC中规定的常排放因子[10]进行核算。

    模型数据库主要基于最新的全球贸易分析项目(GTAP 8)全球能源与经济数据库[11]。该数据库包括了全球129个国家57个产业部门的2007年经济与能源的生产与消费量数据,以及不同地区间的能源与商品双边贸易流量。研究中根据需要我们将其整合形成包含全球19区域(见图2)与20个生产部门的模型数据库。2.1情景框架

    考虑到全球碳市场的进展速度,本文以2020年为研究时点,开发了四种情景以研究欧盟、中国、澳大利亚三国参与下的全球碳市场及其影响(见表1)。第一种情景为各国无碳市场下的参考情景(No ETS),以观察没有碳市场政策下各国能源与排放情况。另外三种为有碳市场下的政策情景:①三个区域建立独立碳市场情景(Separate),没有跨区域碳市场形成;②欧盟与澳大利亚碳市场进行链接的情景(EUANZ),中国仍为独立碳市场;以及③中国、欧盟与澳大利亚三个地区碳市场全部连接的情景(EAC)。

    2.2碳市场设计

    为在模型中对各国碳市场的影响作出模拟,需要对欧盟、澳大利亚以及中国2020年碳市场的排放配额及覆盖部门等关键运行机制做出设定。欧盟已经出台了碳交易体系第三阶段(2013-2020)具体运行方案,相关机制比较明确。而中国与澳大利亚两国碳市场机制尚未构建,本文在研究过程中基于可获得信息对这两个区域的排放配额与覆盖部门等细则作出相应假设。具体三区域相应设定介绍如下。

    覆盖部门。 根据欧盟ETS第三期实施方案,其覆盖范围沿用已有的涵盖部门(包括农业、非金属矿物质制品业、黑色金属冶炼及压延业、有色金属冶炼及压延业、金属制品业、电热力生产与供应、石油制品业),本研究中欧盟碳市场涵盖部门据此设计。澳大利亚目前尚没有明确未来ETS覆盖部门,考虑到其即将与欧盟碳市场对接,本研究假定其覆盖部门与欧盟相同。中国目前也没有全国性碳市场的设计细则,从7个试点省市的碳交易机制方案来看,覆盖部门范围差异较大。当前已实施的深圳碳市场主要覆盖了工业与大型公共建筑业[13],而上海则在此基础上包括了航空、港口、商业、宾馆与金融等行业的排放[14]。本研究假定中国选取最广泛的覆盖范围,即中国碳市场覆盖除农业以外的所有经济部门。

    配额设计。配额设计方面,本文假定各区域碳市场的排放配额与各区域2020年减排目标成比例。在计算过程中,本研究先核算出2020年减排目标下各国2020年目标排放量(欧盟2020年的国家减排目标是在2010年的水平上减少21%的温室气体排放[15];澳大利亚2020年的国家减排目标是在2000年排放标准上无条件减排5%;中国则为2020年的排放强度在2005年水平减少40%-45%),再根据各国2010年的碳市场覆盖部门的排放量占总排放量的份额,将2020年各地区目标排放量按比例计算得到相应碳市场覆盖部门的排放配额量。

    3.1独立碳市场影响

    我们首先对各区域独立碳市场做出分析,独立碳市场的影响结果如表3所示。各地区碳价有较大差别,澳大利亚碳价最高,达到32美元/ t CO2($32/t CO2),欧盟价格稍低($17.5/t CO2),而中国碳价最低($10/t CO2)。中国碳价相对较低反应了中国相对另外两个区域具有更低的减排成本。具体来说,中国碳价的高低与排放约束的强度、生产技术水平以及碳市场覆盖范围等相关,同时也受到未来经济增速假设等不确定性因素的影响。从排放配额来看,中国的减排比例低于其他两个地区。根据本研究假设,尽管2020年中国绝对减排量(351 106 t)比欧盟(177 106 t)以及澳大利亚(53 106 t)要大,但从减排成本来看,中国总体生产技术,尤其是高耗能工业的生产技术比欧盟及澳大利亚要落后,且相对于其他地区中国的煤炭在能源生产中所占比例更大。 2010年中国单位经济产出的碳排放为1.59 kg CO2/美元,比欧盟(0.39 kg CO2/美元)高出六倍,比澳大利亚高出三倍(0.39 kg CO2/美元)。中国通过采用新技术,以及使用资本、劳动力来代替能源及煤炭消耗等途径有着较大的减排空间。

    3.2全球碳市场影响

    全球碳市场情景EUANZ与EAC两种情景的结果如表3所示。首先在没有中国的参与下,欧盟与澳大利亚链接的EUANZ情景中,欧盟与澳大利亚碳市场连接后的碳价为22美元/ t CO2($22/t CO2),澳大利亚从欧盟碳市场中购买14.41 106 t的排放配额,这一交易额占到了澳大

    利亚减排总量的27%。与此同时,澳大利亚将会支付欧盟3.2亿美元。

    4结论

    碳排放作为基于市场的政策工具被认为是成本有效的减排手段,并被期望在国际应对全球气候变化合作中扮演更加重要的角色。本文选取欧盟、澳大利亚和中国三个区域为案例,基于2015年即将形成的欧盟-澳大利亚链接碳市场,分析中国-欧盟-澳大利亚这三个地区形成全球碳市场后的规模,及其对各地区产生的影响。通过分析我们发现,即使给中国设定3%减排这样一个较为温和的减排目标,中国的绝对减排量也远远大于欧盟与澳大利亚两个国家。巨大的经济与排放规模使得中国的加入对欧盟-澳大利亚碳市场产生巨大的影响。中国的低成本减排机会将会使全球碳价从22.2美元/t下降至12.12美元/t。欧盟和澳大利亚分别向中国转移71.2%和81.1%的减排责任,最终会使各地区的福利增加。同时,由于排放约束影响,中国工业部门的能效提升1.4%,煤炭发电量下降3.3%,而清洁能源发电量则上升3.5%。

    本研究对我国未来建立国内碳市场机制具有一定的启示作用。首先通过本文分析说明了碳市场配额与市场覆盖范围对于未来碳价具有重要影响,因而在我国未来设计时应予以重点考虑;其次,研究表明未来碳市场在促进我国工业能效提升的同时,也会增加我国高耗能产业的生产成本,影响产业竞争力,在设计中应予以综合考虑;此外,研究通过不同国家贸易的推演,间接反映出初始配额在不同部门的分配将影响到未来各部门在碳市场中的利益分配,未来设计碳市场时也应认真考虑。

    值得注意的是,本研究是对未来国际区域性碳市场的减排效果及其经济影响的初步分析,由于分析对象中澳大利亚与中国的碳市场机制尚未形成,分析过程中做了较多假设,使得分析结果具有较多的不确定性。例如,在本研究中假设中国碳市场覆盖了工业和服务业所有部门,但在实际制定我国碳市场范围时考虑到核查成本与市场效率等因素肯定无法覆盖这么多部门。同时在本研究中碳配额的数量按照我国碳强度下降目标制定,受到我国未来经济发展不确定性的影响。这些因素都会间接影响到我国未来碳市场的碳价格。此外本文在研究中采用完全自由市场假设,没有将市场缺陷、碳排放战略发展资源与中国参与全球碳市场的可行性等复杂因素考虑在内,可作为以后进一步研究讨论的方向。

    (编辑:刘照胜)

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    [11]Rutherford T F, Sergey P V. GTAP in GAMS and GTAP-EG: Global Datasets for Economic Research and Illustrative Models [G/OL]. 2000.

    [12]Badri N, Angel A, Robert M. Global Trade, Assistance, and Production: The GTAP 8 Data Base [M]. 2012.

    [13]林群烨,王登楷.中国大陆碳市场发展现状介绍 [N/OL]. 绿基会通讯,2013-10 [2013-11-5]. http://www.tgpf.org.tw/upload/publish/publish_70/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8%E7%A2%B3%E5%B8%82%E5%A0%B4%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E7%8F%BE%E6%B3%81%E4%BB%8B%E7%B4%B9.pdf.[Lin Qiuye, Wang Dengkai. State of Carbon Market in China [N/OL]. Green Foundation Newsletter, 2013-10 [2013-11-5]. http://www.tgpf.org.tw/upload/publish/publish_70/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8%E7%A2%B3%E5%B8%82%E5%A0%B4%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E7%8F%BE%E6%B3%81%E4%BB%8B%E7%B4%B9.pdf.]

    [14]China Daily. Shanghai to Pilot Carbon Trade in 2013 [N/OL]. Beijing: China Daily, 2012-7-27[2013-9-5] http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2012-07/27/content_15624507.htm.

    [15]European Union. Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) [R]. Brussels: European Commission, 2012.

    AbstractThe establishment of global multiregional carbon market is considered as a cost effective approach to facilitate global emission abatement and has been widely concerned. The ongoing planned linkage between the European Unions carbon market and a new emissions trading system in Australia in 2015 would be an important attempt to the practice of building up an international carbon market across different regions. To understand the abatement effect of such a global carbon market and to study its energy and economic impact on different market participants, this paper adopts a global dynamic computable general equilibrium model with a detailed representation of the interactions between energy and economic systems. Our model includes 20 economic sectors and 19 regions, and describes in detail 17 energy technologies. Bundled with fossil fuel consumptions, the emission permits are considered as an essential input in each of the production and consumption activities in the economic system to simulate global carbon market policies. Carbon emission permits are endogenously set in the model, and can be traded between sectors and regions. Considering the current development of global carbon market, this study takes 2020 as the study period. Four scenarios (reference scenario, independent carbon market scenario, EUAustralia scenario, and ChinaEUAustralia scenario) are designed to evaluate the impact of the global carbon market involving China, the EU, and Australia. We find that the carbon price of the three countries vary a lot, from 32 $/t CO2 in Australia, to 17.5 $/t CO2 in the EU, and to 10 $/t CO2 in China. Though the relative emission reduction (3%) of China is lower than that of the EU (9%) and Australia (18%), the absolute emission reduction of China is far greater than that of the EU and Australia. When China is included in the carbon market which already includes the EU and Australia, the prevailing global carbon price falls from 22 $/t CO2 to 12 $/t CO2, due to the relatively lower abatement cost in China. 71% of the EUs and 81% of Australias domestic reduction burden would be transferred to China, increasing 0.03% of the EUs and 0.06% of Australias welfare. The emission constraint improves the energy efficiency of Chinas industry sector by 1.4%, reduces coal consumption by 3.3%, and increases clean energy by 3.5%.

    Key wordsemissions trading system; global carbon market; computable general equilibrium model

    [9]Claire G, Niven W, Henry J. What to Expect from Sectoral Trading: A US-China Example [J]. Climate Change Economics, 2011, 2(1): 9-26.

    [10]IPCC. 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories [R]. Geneva: IPCC, 2006.

    [11]Rutherford T F, Sergey P V. GTAP in GAMS and GTAP-EG: Global Datasets for Economic Research and Illustrative Models [G/OL]. 2000.

    [12]Badri N, Angel A, Robert M. Global Trade, Assistance, and Production: The GTAP 8 Data Base [M]. 2012.

    [13]林群烨,王登楷.中国大陆碳市场发展现状介绍 [N/OL]. 绿基会通讯,2013-10 [2013-11-5]. http://www.tgpf.org.tw/upload/publish/publish_70/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8%E7%A2%B3%E5%B8%82%E5%A0%B4%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E7%8F%BE%E6%B3%81%E4%BB%8B%E7%B4%B9.pdf.[Lin Qiuye, Wang Dengkai. State of Carbon Market in China [N/OL]. Green Foundation Newsletter, 2013-10 [2013-11-5]. http://www.tgpf.org.tw/upload/publish/publish_70/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8%E7%A2%B3%E5%B8%82%E5%A0%B4%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E7%8F%BE%E6%B3%81%E4%BB%8B%E7%B4%B9.pdf.]

    [14]China Daily. Shanghai to Pilot Carbon Trade in 2013 [N/OL]. Beijing: China Daily, 2012-7-27[2013-9-5] http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2012-07/27/content_15624507.htm.

    [15]European Union. Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) [R]. Brussels: European Commission, 2012.

    AbstractThe establishment of global multiregional carbon market is considered as a cost effective approach to facilitate global emission abatement and has been widely concerned. The ongoing planned linkage between the European Unions carbon market and a new emissions trading system in Australia in 2015 would be an important attempt to the practice of building up an international carbon market across different regions. To understand the abatement effect of such a global carbon market and to study its energy and economic impact on different market participants, this paper adopts a global dynamic computable general equilibrium model with a detailed representation of the interactions between energy and economic systems. Our model includes 20 economic sectors and 19 regions, and describes in detail 17 energy technologies. Bundled with fossil fuel consumptions, the emission permits are considered as an essential input in each of the production and consumption activities in the economic system to simulate global carbon market policies. Carbon emission permits are endogenously set in the model, and can be traded between sectors and regions. Considering the current development of global carbon market, this study takes 2020 as the study period. Four scenarios (reference scenario, independent carbon market scenario, EUAustralia scenario, and ChinaEUAustralia scenario) are designed to evaluate the impact of the global carbon market involving China, the EU, and Australia. We find that the carbon price of the three countries vary a lot, from 32 $/t CO2 in Australia, to 17.5 $/t CO2 in the EU, and to 10 $/t CO2 in China. Though the relative emission reduction (3%) of China is lower than that of the EU (9%) and Australia (18%), the absolute emission reduction of China is far greater than that of the EU and Australia. When China is included in the carbon market which already includes the EU and Australia, the prevailing global carbon price falls from 22 $/t CO2 to 12 $/t CO2, due to the relatively lower abatement cost in China. 71% of the EUs and 81% of Australias domestic reduction burden would be transferred to China, increasing 0.03% of the EUs and 0.06% of Australias welfare. The emission constraint improves the energy efficiency of Chinas industry sector by 1.4%, reduces coal consumption by 3.3%, and increases clean energy by 3.5%.

    Key wordsemissions trading system; global carbon market; computable general equilibrium model

    [9]Claire G, Niven W, Henry J. What to Expect from Sectoral Trading: A US-China Example [J]. Climate Change Economics, 2011, 2(1): 9-26.

    [10]IPCC. 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories [R]. Geneva: IPCC, 2006.

    [11]Rutherford T F, Sergey P V. GTAP in GAMS and GTAP-EG: Global Datasets for Economic Research and Illustrative Models [G/OL]. 2000.

    [12]Badri N, Angel A, Robert M. Global Trade, Assistance, and Production: The GTAP 8 Data Base [M]. 2012.

    [13]林群烨,王登楷.中国大陆碳市场发展现状介绍 [N/OL]. 绿基会通讯,2013-10 [2013-11-5]. http://www.tgpf.org.tw/upload/publish/publish_70/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8%E7%A2%B3%E5%B8%82%E5%A0%B4%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E7%8F%BE%E6%B3%81%E4%BB%8B%E7%B4%B9.pdf.[Lin Qiuye, Wang Dengkai. State of Carbon Market in China [N/OL]. Green Foundation Newsletter, 2013-10 [2013-11-5]. http://www.tgpf.org.tw/upload/publish/publish_70/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8%E7%A2%B3%E5%B8%82%E5%A0%B4%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E7%8F%BE%E6%B3%81%E4%BB%8B%E7%B4%B9.pdf.]

    [14]China Daily. Shanghai to Pilot Carbon Trade in 2013 [N/OL]. Beijing: China Daily, 2012-7-27[2013-9-5] http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2012-07/27/content_15624507.htm.

    [15]European Union. Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) [R]. Brussels: European Commission, 2012.

    AbstractThe establishment of global multiregional carbon market is considered as a cost effective approach to facilitate global emission abatement and has been widely concerned. The ongoing planned linkage between the European Unions carbon market and a new emissions trading system in Australia in 2015 would be an important attempt to the practice of building up an international carbon market across different regions. To understand the abatement effect of such a global carbon market and to study its energy and economic impact on different market participants, this paper adopts a global dynamic computable general equilibrium model with a detailed representation of the interactions between energy and economic systems. Our model includes 20 economic sectors and 19 regions, and describes in detail 17 energy technologies. Bundled with fossil fuel consumptions, the emission permits are considered as an essential input in each of the production and consumption activities in the economic system to simulate global carbon market policies. Carbon emission permits are endogenously set in the model, and can be traded between sectors and regions. Considering the current development of global carbon market, this study takes 2020 as the study period. Four scenarios (reference scenario, independent carbon market scenario, EUAustralia scenario, and ChinaEUAustralia scenario) are designed to evaluate the impact of the global carbon market involving China, the EU, and Australia. We find that the carbon price of the three countries vary a lot, from 32 $/t CO2 in Australia, to 17.5 $/t CO2 in the EU, and to 10 $/t CO2 in China. Though the relative emission reduction (3%) of China is lower than that of the EU (9%) and Australia (18%), the absolute emission reduction of China is far greater than that of the EU and Australia. When China is included in the carbon market which already includes the EU and Australia, the prevailing global carbon price falls from 22 $/t CO2 to 12 $/t CO2, due to the relatively lower abatement cost in China. 71% of the EUs and 81% of Australias domestic reduction burden would be transferred to China, increasing 0.03% of the EUs and 0.06% of Australias welfare. The emission constraint improves the energy efficiency of Chinas industry sector by 1.4%, reduces coal consumption by 3.3%, and increases clean energy by 3.5%.

    Key wordsemissions trading system; global carbon market; computable general equilibrium model

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